The WEDGE
This formation is written about in Saxo’s History of the Danes (Book 7 and 8) written circa 1200 and concerning a mythical battle from pre-viking times. Saxo gives a complex account of how the formation is to be formed which is not able to be conclusively reconstructed today. Thus we have no contemporary evidence for use of a wedge/shaped formation in battles of the viking era. The other evidence we have for wedge formations is from the classical world, long before Viking times.
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For my money Saxo is attempting to mimic the form of military manual that had become popular in his day with the class of noble warrior knights. By the twelfth century the feudal system was well established and the mainstay of the military system in europe was the knight or miles who spent his youth obsessed with fighting and martial pursuits. In addition, there was a cultural renaissance in Europe and the sons of wealthy men could be educated in reading and writing latin. Their studies would include examination of ancient texts. We know Saxo had access to Virgil and Lucan. Other manuscripts which we know were popular with the martial class were Vegetius’ ‘Epitoma rei militaris’ and ‘Strategikon’ by the Emperor Maurice. To improve Frankish military methods in the 9th century the archbishop of Mainz, Rabanus Maurus, even produced an annotated version of Vegetius under the title, De re militari. The lines of different warriors sound like the principes, hastati and triarii of the early Roman army which deployed in three lines according to battle experience. Saxo was closely connected to the movers and shakers of his time – a time when the Danish nobility and crown was in the ascendant and fighting the eastern pagan Wends. Copies of Vegetius and Maurice were circulating at that time and other manuals such as the ‘King’s Mirror’ appear soon after. He is giving a detailed account to improve his claims to authenticity and because that is what his readership would be impressed by. Saxo’s hidden agenda is to establish that Denmark’s pre-Christian history was a valid part of the nation’s heritage and had figures and stories the equal of the classical cultures. The military technique of the ancient Danes is thus demonstrated as originating from their pagan past which is thereby also given credit. Saxo is always keen to demonstrate that his people's pagan past should not be written-off.
Icelandic references can be interpreted in the same way. There were no armies in Iceland. There were never battles there. Any account or knowledge of warfare had to come from Scandinavia and Europe. Those who wrote the history and sagas were the intellectual and social elite of their day. Everything they wrote had a hidden (or obvious) agenda: to promote their own contemporary society and their cultural heritage.
Saxo’s battle array even has a rearward facing wedge complementing the front/facing one to form a rhombus. This was the formation of Alexander the Great’s cavalry and is given in ancient texts that Saxo could have read and decided to use in embroidering his account.
In Greek and Roman warfare the wedge form could also be created by two columns advancing in converging directions to hit the enemy line together.
The Romans had a ‘wedge’ formation formed by using reserves to deepen the centre of a line which then descended upon the enemy and overthrew his formation with this powerful central punch. It was not, however, wedge shaped.
The roman caput porcinum or pigs head formation is described by Vegetius as being a pointed formation which is wider at its base and which pierces the enemy’s line by virtue of directing a dense hail of missiles at the point it then strikes. Later Roman manuals seem to have abandoned the wedge as a means of attack, preferring a column.
The actual term 'svínfylking' occurs in Færeyingasaga, written after 1200 by an unknown author. A synonym is rani ("hog's snout"). Again the Saxo model stands in terms of the authorship and audience for the tale.
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The whole account is reminiscent of Saxo's account of Harald's visit from Odin and the battle even has the style of Bravalla. These accounts are exciting tall tales for an eager audience.
Svinfylking literally means the gathering of a group in the manner or form of a pig or herd of pigs. To me this means a dense forward rushing mass of heavy squealing bodies that is difficult to oppose. If you have ever seen a herd of wild boar coming to be fed you may know what an impressive sight this is.
It really means simply an onrushing horde of warriors intent on breaking the enemy line rather than a specific formation. In any case we have no evidence it was used in viking times. Its name may be a reference to ‘caput porcinum’ in Vegetius. In both Vegetius and Maurice any attack by a wedge is intended to be accompanied by a dense rain of missiles at the point that it strikes the enemy line.
'Cuneus' was actually a term which referred to the function of the attack rather than its physical shape. The function was to split the enemy line in two - as a wedge is used to separate two surfaces. The formation which does that may or may not have a wedge shape.
Geoffrey of Tours in his ‘History of the Franks’ calls the two divisions adopted by the Saxons marching through Francia ‘cunei’ or ‘wedges’. It makes no sense for a body of men, women and children to tramp across country in a special battle formation. A ‘wedge’ is thus associated with an irresistable deep column of warriors: a column, not a wedge.Tacitus tell us that the Germans attacked in deep columns also termed ‘cunei’ - wedges. The earliest example of a deep attack column designed to burst the enemy's line could be the Theban formation at Leuctra which rammed into the Spartan army and won the first victory over them by another Greek army. Is this the first ‘cannonball’ attack ?
Wedges have some advantages in battle. The leading men can change direction and the rest of the body will follow with minimum disruption. If a broad linear formation tries to change direction then one side must speed up and the other slow down or the whole will be disrupted. In striking an enemy formation, a wedge strikes where the leader wants and then delivers a ‘rolling’ impact as each extra rank moves into contact. The impact spreads away from the first point of contact. Also, the deeper formation behind the centre will press the point into the enemy. A broad linear formation may strike the enemy at one flank before it hits with the centre, all depending upon the speed of each file.
Wedge-shaped formations have disadvantages also. The tip is vulnerable and if the leaders are located there then once contact is made all command is lost. In addition, enemy missile men could target the tip and disrupt the wedge.
The later Icelandic wedge description has 2, then 4 then then 8 men forming the point or alternatively 2,3,4,5 the text is confused may be based upon the same original that Saxo used. The Byzantine wedge was formed with 3 men at the tip then 5, 7 and so on. Who would the lead men be ? Quite a responsibility... and if they fall over ....... oops.
Several writers have indicated the likelihood, which I subscribe to, that a wedge shape is a natural result of leading a column of less-than-perfectly-drilled men at the enemy. The centre of the front will advance most enthusiastically and the wings and rear will hang back a little because they want to protect the flanks, wait to see what the leaders are doing and out of fear. In this way an initially broad linear formation will naturally take the appearance of a wedge as it advances upon an enemy line.
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In the Moesgaard battles it is usually found that a wedge attack is very sensitive to disruption. Bodies on the ground or the death of one or two in the front rank leads to the forward movement of the wedge halting and a scrum ensues which the wedge rarely survives. This is due to the men in the wedge all trying to enter the same point in the enemy line like a group trying to enter the same door simultaneously. Groups of reserves and the rear ranks of the line usually see a wedge coming and naturally form a ‘pincers’ or reverse wedge to absorb and kill the attackers as they pierce the line. It must be said that the wedge probably also loses a lot of impact if it cannot be accompanied by a shower of missiles onto the point of impact in the enemy line. This would distract the defenders, kill or wound some of them and make it harder to observe the oncoming group. In a battle with thousands of participants the 'wedge' must comprise many men or its effect will not be felt. A group of 50 or a hundred men will be isolated behind the enemy front and killed. The wedge must burst open and disrupt the whole enemy line rather than be a pinprick hole in it.
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